Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Overview

Jean-Jacques Rousseau is an influential 18th-century philosopher whose ideas on Natural Rights, Social contracts, and Individual freedom greatly influenced the Enlightenment and Globalization. In The Social Contract, he famously stated, “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains,” showing that even though all people are born equal, some rights are forcibly restricted and taken away by society’s “chains,” such as political oppression. He advocated for a government based on the general will, and his work inspired democratic movements worldwide and reshaped people’s views on government and authority. Rousseau’s emphasis on human nature and education also influenced how societies approached colonialism and the development of modern educational philosophies (Glendon 42).

In 1744, after working in low-rank jobs for different wealthy families, he was determined to live independently and moved to Paris. There, he became friends with Diderot and got married to Thérèse Le Vasseur, a laundress at the hotel he is staying in. They had 5 children, all of whom were abandoned at a foundling hospital shortly after birth ("Jean Jacques Rousseau") . Rousseau justified this by saying that his family’s poverty made it impossible to raise them and that raising a family would interfere with his intellectual pursuit.

In 1750, Rousseau responded to the question "Has the restoration of the sciences and arts contributed to the purification of morals?" from Dijon Academy by Writing the Discourse on the Arts and Sciences and arguing the negative. His response to the question won the contest and he gained international recognition ("L'Académie Prize Question").  The recognition improved his financial situation and granted him entrance to elite social circles. Following this success, he wrote further influential works, including Discourse on Inequality, which became an impactful work in political philosophy. His novel, Julie, ou la Nouvelle Héloïse, became the most widely read book in the 18th century. In the following year, he published The Social Contract, which contained ideas that would later inspire revolutionary movements and other influential works like Émile (Glendon 42).

1. Critique of Civilization and Moral Corruption  

In Discourse on the Sciences and Arts (First Discourse), Rousseau argued that the advancement of the arts and sciences had not led to moral improvement but rather to moral corruption. He believed that civilization fosters vanity, inequality, and luxury, which erode natural virtue and simplicity ("POLITICAL THEORY – Jean-Jacques Rousseau"). Rousseau criticized societies for prioritizing knowledge and refinement, which he argued will lead individuals to value reputation over genuine goodness, thereby neglecting sincerity and morality. He asserted that reason and intellectual achievement should not be placed above honesty and virtue, and emphasized that faith and religion should not be disregarded in the pursuit of knowledge. Ultimately, he questioned the worth of knowledge when separated from virtue and whether true progress can exist without moral growth ("Jean Jacques Rousseau").

2. The State of Nature and the Origins of Inequality 

In his Discourse on Inequality (Second Discourse), Rousseau challenged previous Enlightenment thinkers like Locke and Hobbes, who painted early human society as unstructured, violent, and insecure. In contrast, Rousseau believed that humans originally lived a simple and peaceful life, which he called the state of nature. In this state, people lived alone, had little needs, and there was no competition (Deneys-Tunney).

     However, as the population grew, people formed communities and developed divisions in things like labor. Over time, this led to inequality and competition in society (Weber). The most critical turning point, according to Rousseau, is the creation of private property. Rousseau argued that once people started claiming ownership over land and other property as their own, the inequality became permanent. The rich will then use the government to protect their property, creating a system that looks fair to everyone but benefits the wealthy themself. Rousseau called this a Naturalized Social Contract, where inequality and injustice are trapped in the society (“Introduction to Rousseau: The Social Contract”).

3. The Social Contract, The General Will, and Democracy

     To solve this societal problem, Rousseau wrote about the solution in his book The Social Contract. The book’s central theme can be expressed in the quote “Man was born free, and he is everywhere in chains.” which explains that while humans are born naturally free, societal structures and other inequalities often restrict people’s ability to fully exercise that freedom. His guiding question in the book is "How can people live together while remaining free? " (Friend).

He offered a solution called the General Will. He claims that instead of being ruled by kings and queens, we should come together as equals and make decisions for the common good. By taking collective opinion instead of individual ones, Rousseau argued that we would not be ruled by force but rather by agreements made by everyone (Deneys-Tunney).

     Rousseau also argued that sometimes people will be “forced to be free,” meaning that even if someone does not personally agree with a law, they must still follow it because it was created through a fair and collective process.

4. Restoring Freedom Through Collective Governance

     Rousseau believed that true democracy required direct participation, where citizens regularly gathered together to make choices. He rejected representative democracy because, in his view, it allows leaders to make decisions that only partially reflect the will of the people, thus making the process indirect and not truly democratic (Humphris).

     Ultimately, Rousseau believed that by coming together and forming a true democracy based on the general will, people can create a just and fair society that restores their lost freedom.

     Rousseau’s ideas both supported and resisted globalization. While his advocacy for democracy promoted global human rights, his emphasis on self-governance and skepticism of industrial progress fueled deglobalization. However, some deglobalizing concepts, like environmental sustainability, may be rational.

     Rousseau’s concept of the Social Contract and the general will has significantly influenced modern democratic movements, contributing to the creation of international institutions such as the United Nations and shaping global human rights advocacy. His philosophical ideas have inspired democratic revolutions, such as the Arab Spring and the Hong Kong protests, both of which referenced his anti-authoritarian stance. By promoting self-rule, individual freedoms, and collective governance, Rousseau’s legacy has fostered democratic ideals that goes beyond national borders, encouraging a more interconnected and politically engaged global society (Rachel Humphris).